[1] S. Jin et al., "A comprehensive review on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: Urgent status and technology advances," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 340, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130535.
[2] W. Yan et al., "Rethinking Chinese supply resilience of critical metals in lithium-ion batteries," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 256, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120719.
[3] Z. Huang, J. Zhu, R. Qiu, J. Ruan, and R. Qiu, "A cleaner and energy-saving technology of vacuum step-by-step reduction for recovering cobalt and nickel from spent lithium-ion batteries," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 229, pp. 1148–1157, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.049.
[4] T. Li et al., "Closed-loop cobalt recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries based on a deep eutectic solvent (DES) with easy solvent recovery," Journal of Energy Chemistry, vol. 72, pp. 532–538, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2022.05.008.
[5] Z. Takacova, D. Orac, J. Klimko, and A. Miskufova, "Current Trends in Spent Portable Lithium Battery Recycling," Materials, vol. 16, no. 12, 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124264.
[6] P. A. Christensen et al., "Risk management over the life cycle of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 148, 2021, Art. no. 111240, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111240.
[7] T. Shan, P. Zhang, Z. Wang, and X. Zhu, "Insights into extreme thermal runaway scenarios of lithium-ion batteries fire and explosion: A critical review," Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 88, 2024, Art. no. 111532, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.111532.
[8] N. K. Gupta, "Battery waste-derived functional materials for the capture and removal of harmful gases," Environmental Science: Advances, vol. 3, no. 8, pp. 1087–1096, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1039/D4VA00140K.
[9] Z. Zhang, H. Dong, L. Wang, Y. Wang, and X. He, "Tracing Root Causes of Electric Vehicle Fires," Energy Technology, vol. 12, no. 12, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202400931.
[10] S. Jain, S. M. Hoseyni, and J. Cordiner, "Safety considerations for hydrometallurgical metal recovery from lithium‐ion batteries," Process Safety Progress, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 542–549, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1002/prs.12618.
[11] R. Sommerville et al., "A review of physical processes used in the safe recycling of lithium ion batteries," Sustainable Materials and Technologies, vol. 25, 2020, Art. no. e00197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2020.e00197.
[12] J. Marshall, D. Gastol, R. Sommerville, B. Middleton, V. Goodship, and E. Kendrick, "Disassembly of Li Ion Cells—Characterization and Safety Considerations of a Recycling Scheme," Metals, vol. 10, no. 6, 2020, Art. no. 773, https://doi.org/10.3390/met10060773.
[13] L. Bravo Diaz et al., "Review—Meta-Review of Fire Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Industry Challenges and Research Contributions," Journal of The Electrochemical Society, vol. 167, no. 9, 2020, Art. no. 090559, https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/aba8b9.
[14] G. Azimi and K. H. Chan, "A review of contemporary and emerging recycling methods for lithium-ion batteries with a focus on NMC cathodes," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 209, 2024, Art. no. 107825, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107825.
[15] K. K. Jena, A. AlFantazi, and A. T. Mayyas, "Comprehensive Review on Concept and Recycling Evolution of Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs)," Energy & Fuels, vol. 35, no. 22, pp. 18257–18284, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c02489.
[16] Y. Kotak et al., "End of Electric Vehicle Batteries: Reuse vs. Recycle," Energies, vol. 14, no. 8, p. 2217, 2021, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14082217.
[17] S. Doose, J. K. Mayer, P. Michalowski, and A. Kwade, "Challenges in ecofriendly battery recycling and closed material cycles: A perspective on future lithium battery generations," Metals, vol. 11, no. 2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/met11020291.
[18] J. Shaw-Stewart et al., "Aqueous solution discharge of cylindrical lithium-ion cells," Sustainable Materials and Technologies, vol. 22, Art. no. e00110, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2019.e00110.
[19] Z. Fang et al., "Comparative study of chemical discharge strategy to pretreat spent lithium-ion batteries for safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly recycling," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 359, 2022, Art. no. 132116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132116.
[20] K. Du, E. H. Ang, X. Wu, and Y. Liu, "Progresses in sustainable recycling technology of spent lithium‐ion batteries," Energy & Environmental Materials, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1012–1036, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12271.
[21] Y. Lei et al., "Recent advances in separator design for lithium metal batteries without dendrite formation: Implications for electric vehicles," eTransportation, vol. 20, 2024, Art. no. 100330, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etran.2024.100330.
[22] G. Zhang, Y. He, H. Wang, Y. Feng, W. Xie, and X. Zhu, "Removal of organics by pyrolysis for enhancing liberation and flotation behavior of electrode materials derived from spent lithium-ion batteries," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 2205–2214, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b05896.
[23] H. Liu et al., "The application of Al2O3 in separators and solid electrolytes of lithium-ion battery: A review," Energy Storage Materials, vol. 71, 2024, Art. no. 103575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2024.103575.
[24] S. El Moutchou, H. Aziam, M. Mansori, and I. Saadoune, "Thermal stability of Lithium-ion batteries: Case study of NMC811 and LFP cathode materials," Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 51, pp. A1–A7, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.02.324.
[25] L. P. Yao, Q. Zeng, T. Qi, and J. Li, "An environmentally friendly discharge technology to pretreat spent lithium-ion batteries," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 245, 2020, Art. no. 118820, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118820.
[26] T. R. B. Grandjean, J. Groenewald, and J. Marco, "The experimental evaluation of lithium ion batteries after flash cryogenic freezing," Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 21, pp. 202–215, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.11.027.
[27] L. Yun et al., "Metallurgical and mechanical methods for recycling of lithium-ion battery pack for electric vehicles," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 136, pp. 198–208, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.025.
[28] [28] J. Xiao, J. Guo, L. Zhan, and Z. Xu, "A cleaner approach to the discharge process of spent lithium ion batteries in different solutions," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 255, 2020, Art. no. 120064, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120064.
[29] H. Rouhi, E. Karola, R. Serna-Guerrero, and A. Santasalo-Aarnio, "Voltage behavior in lithium-ion batteries after electrochemical discharge and its implications on the safety of recycling processes," Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 35, 2021, Art. no. 102323, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102323.
[30] F. Larsson, P. Andersson, P. Blomqvist, and B. E. Mellander, "Toxic fluoride gas emissions from lithium-ion battery fires," Scientific Reports, vol. 7, no. 1, p. 10018, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09784-z.
[31] O. Velázquez-Martínez, J. Valio, A. Santasalo-Aarnio, M. Reuter, and R. Serna-Guerrero, "A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective," Batteries, vol. 5, no. 4, 2019, Art. no. 68, https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040068.
[32] M. M. Wang, C. C. Zhang, and F. S. Zhang, "An environmental benign process for cobalt and lithium recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries by mechanochemical approach," Waste Management, vol. 51, pp. 239–244, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.03.006.
[33] T. Zhang, Y. He, L. Ge, R. Fu, X. Zhang, and Y. Huang, "Characteristics of wet and dry crushing methods in the recycling process of spent lithium-ion batteries," Journal of Power Sources, vol. 240, pp. 766–771, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.05.009.
[34] L. Wuschke, H. G. Jackel, T. Leissner, and U. A. Peuker, "Crushing of large Li-ion battery cells," Waste Management, vol. 85, pp. 317–326, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.12.042.
[35] P. Liu et al., "Thermal runaway and fire behaviors of lithium iron phosphate battery induced by over heating," Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 31, 2020, Art. no. 101714, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101714.
[36] M. Grützke, X. Mönnighoff, F. Horsthemke, V. Kraft, M. Winter, and S. Nowak, "Extraction of lithium-ion battery electrolytes with liquid and supercritical carbon dioxide and additional solvents," RSC Advances, vol. 5, no. 54, pp. 43209–43217, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA04451K.
[37] J. Diekmann et al., "Ecological recycling of lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles with focus on mechanical processes," Journal of The Electrochemical Society, vol. 164, no. 1, pp. A6184–A6191, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.0271701jes.
[38] M. Abdelbaky et al., "Comparing the environmental performance of industrial recycling routes for lithiumnickel-cobalt-manganese oxide 111 vehicle batteries," Procedia CIRP, vol. 98, pp. 97-102, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.012.
[39] B. Makuza, Q. Tian, X. Guo, K. Chattopadhyay, and D. Yu, "Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review," Journal of Power Sources, vol. 491, 2021, Art. no. 229622, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229622.
[40] L. Reinhart et al., "Pyrometallurgical recycling of different lithium-ion battery cell systems: Economic and technical analysis," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 416, 2023, Art. no. 137834, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137834.
[41] A. Cornelio, A. Zanoletti, and E. Bontempi, "Recent progress in pyrometallurgy for the recovery of spent lithium-ion batteries: A review of state-of-the-art developments," Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, vol. 46, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2024.100881.
[42] X. Zhong, W. Liu, J. Han, F. Jiao, W. Qin, and T. Liu, "Pretreatment for the recovery of spent lithium ion batteries: theoretical and practical aspects," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 263, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121439.
[43] [43] J. Mao, J. Li, and Z. Xu, "Coupling reactions and collapsing model in the roasting process of recycling metals from LiCoO2 batteries," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 205, pp. 923–929, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.098.
[44] M. Chen et al., "Recycling End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries," Joule, vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 2622–2646, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.09.014.
[45] J. Mao et al., "Toward practical lithium-ion battery recycling: adding value, tackling circularity and recycling-oriented design," Energy & Environmental Science, no. 7, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EE00162D.
[46] J. Shi et al., "Sulfation Roasting Mechanism for Spent Lithium-Ion Battery Metal Oxides Under SO2-O2-Ar Atmosphere," Jom, vol. 71, no. 12, pp. 4473–4482, 2019, doi: 10.1007/s11837-019-03800-5.
[47] H. Dang et al., "Recycled Lithium from Simulated Pyrometallurgical Slag by Chlorination Roasting," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 13160–13167, 2018, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b02713.
[48] Y. Jian et al., "Process study of chloride roasting and water leaching for the extraction of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries," Hydrometallurgy, vol. 203, 2021, Art. no. 105638, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2021.105638.
[49] S. Gupta, K. K. Pant, and G. Corder, "An environmentally benign closed-loop process for the selective recovery of valuable metals from industrial end-of-life lithium-ion batteries," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 446, part 5, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.137397.
[50] W. Lv, Z. Wang, H. Cao, Y. Sun, Y. Zhang, and Z. Sun, "A Critical Review and Analysis on the Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 1504–1521, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03811.
[51] B. Swain, J. Jeong, J.-c. Lee, G.-H. Lee, and J.-S. Sohn, "Hydrometallurgical process for recovery of cobalt from waste cathodic active material generated during manufacturing of lithium ion batteries," Journal of Power Sources, vol. 167, no. 2, pp. 536–544, 2007, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.02.046.
[52] N. Vieceli, R. Casasola, G. Lombardo, B. Ebin, and M. Petranikova, "Hydrometallurgical recycling of EV lithium-ion batteries: Effects of incineration on the leaching efficiency of metals using sulfuric acid," Waste Management, vol. 125, pp. 192–203, 15 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.02.039.
[53] J. Qing et al., "Novel approach to recycling of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries using hydrometallurgy, focused on preferential extraction of lithium," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 431, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139645.
[54] E. Fan et al., "Selective Recovery of Li and Fe from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries by an Environmentally Friendly Mechanochemical Approach," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 11029–11035, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b02503.
[55] L. Brückner, J. Frank, and T. Elwert, "Industrial recycling of lithium-ion batteries—A critical review of metallurgical process routes," Metals, vol. 10, no. 8, 2020, Art. no. 1107, https://doi.org/10.3390/met10081107.
[56] E. Mossali, N. Picone, L. Gentilini, O. Rodriguez, J. M. Perez, and M. Colledani, "Lithium-ion batteries towards circular economy: A literature review of opportunities and issues of recycling treatments," Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 264, p. 110500, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110500.
[57] H. Zeng et al., "Lithium manganese iron phosphate materials: Design, progress, and challenges," Energy Materials and Devices, vol. 3, no. 1, 2025, https://doi.org/10.26599/EMD.2025.9370060.
[58] E. Lyle, R. Vaeli, A. Dutta, and M. Metzger, "Melt synthesis of lithium manganese iron phosphate: Part I. Composition, physical properties, structural analysis, and charge/discharge cycling," Journal of The Electrochemical Society, vol. 169, no. 6, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac76e4.
[59] T. Li, X.-Z. Yuan, L. Zhang, D. Song, K. Shi, and C. Bock, "Degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies of Nickel-Rich NMC-based lithium-ion batteries," Electrochemical Energy Reviews, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 43–80, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-019-00053-3.
[60] Y. Duan, S.-P. Chen, L. Zhang, L. Guo, and F.-N. Shi, "Review on oxygen release mechanism and modification strategy of Nickel-Rich NCM cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries: Recent advances and future directions," Energy & Fuels, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 5607–5631, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c04636.